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How deceptive online networks reached millions in the US 2020 elections
Citation
Appel, R.E., Kim, Y.M., Pan, J. et al. How deceptive online networks reached millions in the US 2020 elections. Nat Hum Behav (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-026-02435-2
Date Posted
Apr 06, 2026
Authors
- Ruth E. Appel,
- Young Mie Kim,
- Jennifer Pan,
- Yiqing Xu,
- Ben Nimmo,
- Daniel Robert Thomas,
- Hunt Allcott,
- Pablo Barberá,
- Taylor Brown,
- Adriana Crespo-Tenorio,
- Drew Dimmery,
- Deen Freelon,
- Matthew Gentzkow,
- Sandra González-Bailón,
- Andrew M. Guess,
- Shanto Iyengar,
- David Lazer,
- Neil Malhotra,
- Devra Moehler,
- Brendan Nyhan,
- Jaime Settle,
- Emily Thorson,
- Rebekah Tromble,
- Caros Velasco Rivera,
- Arjun Wilkins,
- Magdalena Wojcieszak,
- Beixian Xiong,
- Chad Kiewiet de Jonge,
- Annie Franco,
- Winter Mason,
- Natalie Jomini Stroud,
- Joshua A. Tucker
Area of Study
Abstract
Deceptive online networks are coordinated efforts that use identity deception to pursue strategic political or financial goals. During the US 2020 elections, these networks reached at least 37 million Facebook and 3 million Instagram users, representing 15% and 2% of the platforms’ active US adult users, respectively. Only 3 networks out of 49—1 network with explicitly political aims and 2 that appeared to use politics as a lure for profit—were responsible for over 70% of users reached. Notably, accounts unaffiliated with the networks played an important role in facilitating this reach by resharing content the three networks produced. Deceptive networks, regardless of whether their goals were political or financial, reached users who were older, more conservative, more frequently exposed to content from untrustworthy sources, and spent more time on Facebook.